Indian elephant
The Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) is one of three extant recognised subspecies of the Asian elephant and native to mainland Asia. Since 1986, the Asian elephant has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List as the wild population has declined by at least 50% since the 1930s to 1940s, i.e. three elephant generations. The Asian elephant is threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation. Characteristics , Göteborg, Västra Götaland County, Sweden]] In general, Asian elephants are smaller than African elephants and have the highest body point on the head. The tip of their trunk has one finger-like process. Their back is convex or level. Indian elephants reach a shoulder height of between , weigh between , and have 19 pairs of ribs. Their skin colour is lighter than of maximus with smaller patches of depigmentation, but darker than of sumatranus. Females are usually smaller than males, and have short or no tusks. The largest Indian elephant was high at the shoulder. In 1985, two large elephant bulls were spotted for the first time in Bardia National Park, and named Raja Gaj and Kanchha. They roamed the park area together and occasionally visited female herds. Raja Gaj stood tall at the shoulder and had a massive body weight. His forehead and domes were more prominent than in other Asian bull elephants. His appearance has been compared to that of a Stegodon and mammoth due to his high bi-domed shaped head. Indian elephants have smaller ears, but relatively broader skulls and larger trunks than African elephants. Toes are large and broad. Unlike their African cousins, their abdomen is proportionate with their body weight but the African elephant has a large abdomen as compared to the skulls. Distribution and habitat , Kerala]] ]] ]] ]] The Indian elephant is native to mainland Asia: India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Laos, China, Cambodia, and Vietnam. It is regionally extinct in Pakistan. It inhabits grasslands, dry deciduous, moist deciduous, evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. In the early 1990s, the estimated wild populations included:Sukumar, R. (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=95MoRwdQlcYC&printsec=frontcover&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management] Second edition. Cambridge University Press. * 27,785–31,368 in India, where populations are restricted to four general areas: ** in the Northwest — at the foot of the Himalayas in Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh, ranging from Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary to the Yamuna River; ** in the Northeast – from the eastern border of Nepal in northern West Bengal through western Assam along the Himalaya foothills as far as the Mishmi Hills, extending into eastern Arunachal Pradesh, the plains of upper Assam, and the foothills of Nagaland, to the Garo Hills of Meghalaya through the Khasi Hills, to parts of the lower Brahmaputra plains and Karbi Plateau; isolated herds occur in Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur, and in the Barak Valley districts of Assam: ** in the central part — in Odisha, Jharkhand, and in the southern part of West Bengal, with some animals wandering into Chhattisgarh; ** in the South – eight populations are fragmented from each other in northern Karnataka, in the crestline of Karnataka–Western Ghats, in Bhadra–Malnad, in Brahmagiri–Nilgiris–Eastern Ghats, in Nilambur–Silent Valley–Coimbatore, in Anamalai–Parambikulam, in Periyar–Srivilliputhur, and one in Agasthyamalai; * 100–125 in Nepal, where their range is restricted to a few protected areas in the Terai along the border with India. In 2002, estimates ranged from 106 to 172 resident and migratory elephants, with most of them in Bardia National Park;Bhatta, S. R. (2006). [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/25-87-Bhatta.pdf Efforts to conserve the Asian elephant in Nepal]. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 25: 87–89. * 150–250 in Bangladesh, where only isolated populations survive in the Chittagong Hills; * 250–500 in Bhutan, where their range is limited to protected areas in the south along the border with India; * 4,000–5,000 in Myanmar, where populations are highly fragmented, and occur in the northern ranges and Arakan Yoma in western, Pegu Yoma of central Myanmar, Tenasserim and Shan State; , Thailand]] * 2,500–3,200 in Thailand, mainly in the mountains along the border with Myanmar, with smaller fragmented populations occurring in the peninsula in the south; * 2,100–3,100 in Malaysia; * 500–1,000 Laos, where they remain widely but patchily distributed in forested areas, both in the highlands and lowlands; * 200–250 in China, where they survive only in the prefectures of Xishuangbanna, Simao, and Lincang of southern Yunnan; * 250–600 in Cambodia, where they primarily inhabit the mountains of the south-west and in Mondulkiri and Ratanakiri Provinces; * 70–150 in the southern parts of Vietnam. Elephant corridors There are a total of 138 state elephant corridors, 28 interstate corridors and 17 international state corridors where Indian elephant populations are found. The table below enlists the corridors. Ecology and behaviour Elephants are classified as megaherbivores and consume up to of plant matter per day.Samansiri, K. A. P., Weerakoon, D. K. (2007). [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/27-27-Samansiri.pdf Feeding Behaviour of Asian Elephants in the Northwestern Region of Sri Lanka]. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Number 2: 27–34 They are generalist feeders, and both grazers and browsers. In a study area of in southern India, elephants were recorded to feed on 112 different plant species, most commonly of the order Malvales, and the legume, palm, sedge and true grass families. They graze on the tall grasses, but the portion consumed varies with season. When the new flush appears in April, they remove the tender blades in small clumps. Later, when grasses are higher than , they uproot entire clumps, dust them skilfully and consume the fresh leave tops, but discard the roots. When grasses are mature in autumn, they clean and consume the succulent basal portions with the roots, and discard the fibrous blades. From the bamboos, they eat seedlings, culms and lateral shoots. During the dry season from January to April, they mainly browse on both leaves and twigs preferring the fresh foliage, and consume thorn bearing shoots of acacia species without any obvious discomfort. They feed on the bark of white thorn and other flowering plants, and consume the fruits of wood apple, tamarind, kumbhi and date palm.Sukumar, R. (1990). [http://www.asiannature.org/pdf_resources/JournalofTropicalEcologyB1989.pdf Ecology of the Asian Elephant in southern India. II. Feeding habits and crop raiding patterns] . Journal of Tropical Ecology (1990) 6: 33–53. In Nepal's Bardia National Park, elephants consume large amounts of the floodplain grass, particularly during the monsoon season. They browse more in the dry season with bark constituting a major part of their diet in the cool part of that season.Pradhan, N.M.B., Wegge, P., Moe, S.R., Shrestha, A.K. (2008). [http://www.wildlifebiology.com/Downloads/Article/711/En/pradhan%20et%20al.pdf Feeding ecology of two endangered sympatric megaherbivores: Asian elephant Elephas maximus and greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in lowland Nepal]. Wildlife Biology 14: 147–154. During a study in a tropical moist mixed deciduous forested area of in Assam, elephants were observed to feed on about 20 species of grasses, plants and trees. Grasses such as Imperata cylindrica and Leersia hexandra constituted by far the most predominant component of their diet.Borah, J., Deka, K. (2008). [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/28-41-Borah.pdf Nutritional Evaluation of Forage Preferred by Wild Elephants in the Rani Range Forest, Assam, India]. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 28: 41–43. , Thailand]] The movement and habitat utilisation patterns of an elephant population were studied in southern India during 1981–83 within a study area. The vegetation types of this area encompasses dry thorn forest at , deciduous forest at , stunted evergreen forest and grassland at . Five different elephant clans, each consisting of between 50 and 200 individuals had home ranges of between and , which overlapped. They preferred habitat where water was available and food plants were palatable. During the dry months of January to April, they congregated at high densities of up to five individuals per km2 in river valleys where browse plants had a much higher protein content than the coarse tall grasses on hill slopes. With the onset of rains in May, they dispersed over a wider area at lower densities, largely into the tall grass forests, to feed on the fresh grasses, which then had a high protein value. During the second wet season from September to December, when the tall grasses became fibrous, they moved into lower elevation short grass open forests. The normal movement pattern could be upset during years of adverse environmental conditions. However, the movement pattern of elephants in this region has not basically changed for over a century, as inferred from descriptions recorded during the 19th century.Sukumar, R. (1989). [http://www.asiannature.org/pdf_resources/JournalofTropicalEcologyA1989.pdf Ecology of the Asian elephant in southern India. l. Movement and habitat utilization patterns] . Journal of Tropical Ecology 5: 1–18. In the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve three elephant clans had overall home ranges of , and in the beginning of the 1990s. During three years of survey, their annual home ranges overlapped to a large extent with only minor shifts in the home ranges between years.Baskaran, N., Desai, A. A. (1996). [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/15-41-Bskaran.pdf Ranging behaviour of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, South India]. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 15: 41–57. Threats with injuries on the head indicating a possible attack by a leopard or a tiger]] The pre-eminent threats to Asian elephants today are habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation, which are driven by an expanding human population, and lead in turn to increasing conflicts between humans and elephants when elephants eat or trample crops. Loss of significant extents of elephant range and suitable habitat continues; their free movement is impeded by reservoirs, hydroelectric projects and associated canals, irrigation dams, numerous pockets of cultivation and plantations, highways, railway lines, mining and industrial development. Poaching of elephants for ivory is a serious threat in some parts of Asia. Poaching of tuskers impacts on sex ratios that become highly female biased; genetic variation is reduced, and fecundity and recruitment may decline. Poaching has dramatically skewed adult sex ratios in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, where between 1969 and 1989 the adult male:female sex ratio changed from 1:6 to 1:122.Chandran, P. M. (1990). Population dynamics of elephants in Periyar Tiger Reserve. Pages 51–56 in: C. K. Karunakaran (ed.) Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecology, Behaviour and Management of Elephants in Kerala. Kerala Forest Department, Trivandrum, India. Elephant conservation in northern West Bengal has been set back due to high-levels of human–elephant conflict and elephant mortality owing to railway accidents. The railway track between Siliguri and Alipurduar passes through of various forest divisions. Every day, 20 trains run on this track at high speeds. Elephants that pass through from one forest patch to another dash against the trains and die. A total of 39 dead elephants were reported during the period of 1958 to 2008, of which ten were reported killed between 2004 and 2008.Roy, M. Baskaran, N., Sukumar, R. (2009). [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/31-36-39-Roy.pdf The Death of Jumbos on Railway Tracks in Northern West Bengal]. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 31: 36–39. In Bangladesh, forested areas that served as prime elephant habitat have undergone drastic reduction, which had a severe impact on the wild elephant population. Habitat loss and fragmentation is attributed to the increasing human population and its need for fuel wood and timber. Illegal timber extraction plays a significant role in deforestation and habitat degradation. As a result of the shrinking habitat, elephants have become more and more prone to coming into direct conflict with humans.Islam, M.–A. (2006). [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/25-21-Islam.pdf Conservation of the Asian elephant in Bangladesh]. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 25: 21–26. In Myanmar, demand for elephant ivory for making tourist items is higher than ever before. The military government shows little interest in reducing the ivory trade, while the elephants in the country have become the silent victims. After the worldwide ivory ban, prices of raw ivory in the country skyrocketed from $76 a kilo for large tusks in 1989/90 to over $200 a kilo by the mid-1990s. Foreign tourists are responsible for the massive rise in price of ivory tusks which fuels the illegal killing of elephants. There is also a sizeable trade in ivory chopsticks and carvings, smuggled by traders from Myanmar into China.Vigne, L., Martin, E. (2002). [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/21-85-Vigne.pdf Myanmar’s ivory trade threatens wild elephants]. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 21: 85–86. Young wild-born elephants are removed from their mothers in Myanmar for use in Thailand's tourism industry. Mothers are often killed in the process, and calves are placed alongside unrelated cows to suggest they are with their mothers. The calves are often subjected to a 'breaking in' process, which may involve being tied up, confined, starved, beaten and tortured, as a result of which two-thirds may perish. Electrocution due to contact with electric poles and transformers has been reported as another major threat to elephants in India, with an estimated 461 elephants having been electrocuted between 2009 and 2017. For disease risk, see Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus. Conservation ]] Elephas maximus is listed on CITES Appendix I. Project Elephant was launched in 1992 by the Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests to provide financial and technical support of wildlife management efforts by states for their free ranging populations of wild Asian Elephants. The project aims to ensure long-term survival of viable conservation reliant populations of elephants in their natural habitats by protecting the elephants, their habitats and migration corridors. Other goals of Project Elephant are supporting research of the ecology and management of elephants, creating conservation awareness among local people, providing improved veterinary care for captive elephants. See also * Sri Lankan elephant * Sumatran elephant * Borneo elephant * Elephants in Kerala culture * Mela shikar References Further reading *G. P. Sanderson (1907) Thirteen years among the wild beasts of India: their haunts and habits from personal observation : with an account of the modes of capturing and taming elephants. John Grant, Edinburgh. 8th edition in 2000 by Asian Educational Services, New Delhi. . External links * [http://panda.org/elephants/asian/indian WWF: Indian elephant] * [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Elephas_maximus.html Animal Diversity Web: Elephas maximus Asiatic elephant] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070428041103/http://www.honoluluzoo.org/indian_elephant.htm Honolulu Zoo: Indian Elephant] * Paintings of Indian Elephants Category:Elephants Category:Mammals of Bangladesh Category:Mammals of Bhutan Category:Mammals of Myanmar Category:Mammals of Cambodia Category:Mammals of China Category:Mammals of India Category:Mammals of Laos Category:Mammals of Malaysia Category:Mammals of Nepal Category:Mammals of Thailand Category:Mammals of Vietnam Category:National symbols of India Category:Symbols of Jharkhand Category:Elephants in India